Masters Of Business Administration ( International Business )

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING FLORIDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MASTERS OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS) ABSTRACT Author: Paul Manu Title: How can developing countries protect their unique interests in their attempt to make their economies more appealing to international investors through adopting harmonization.: The African perspective. Year: 2015 Pages: 10 Name of Professor: Dr.Achilles, Wendy The rapid ascent of globalization and internationalization on the world business stage has ushered in an era of standardization in most industries of the world markets. This is an attempt to provide an apple to apples scenario for business leaders in transactions. Recent†¦show more content†¦As such, certain international bodies like the (IASB) International Accounting Standards Board having perceived the need for this revolution, is spearheading the initiative to harmonize international accounting standards worldwide. This paper seeks to analyze how developing countries especially in Africa are progressing with the International Financial Reporting Standards adoption and measures they are putting in place to protect against economic imperialism where they are forced to accept accounting standards with no cost benefit to them, but solely to the proponents of the standards, which for the most part is the West. Keywords: International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), IAS TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 INTRODUCTION 4 1.1 Context 4 1.2 Objective of Study 5 1.3 Scope of Paper 6 2.0 IFRS and Emerging Economies of Developing Countries. 6 2.1 Adoption Conundrum 7 2.2 Weak Links in Africa (and other developing countries) that need to be adapted to IFRS. 7 2.3 Ways in which Emerging markets can aid with the IFRS process and have a beneficial say. 8 3.0 CONCLUSION 9 Reference: 10 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Context Almost every facet of our day to day lives especially to deal with trade has an international element to it now. Business are vying for the same markets, customers and market shares. Innovation is the order of sustainability. All these are backed by the availability of

Synthesis Of The Knowledge And Skills Acquired During...

Demonstrate synthesis of the knowledge and skills acquired in preceding graduate nursing core and specialty curriculum content. Throughout this program, each class has really broadened by skills and knowledge to prepare me for practice as a family nurse practitioner delivering excellent evidence-based medicine. The first class where we learned about the role of the advance practice nurse really set the tone for what to expect as a provider and what each role entails. Moving on to the theory class, it was discovered how much nursing theory really plays a part in caring for patients. My knowledge was increased on the different theories and how one can relate them to patient situations by participating in discussion questions and preparing papers. Also, it was known that theory is what guides research to better patient care. Pathophysiology was really the building block for the makeup of the human body. One has to be proficient in knowing how different systems in the body function and how they can be affected by other processes. By reading the provided textbooks, writing papers, and participating in discu ssion with other classmates, my knowledge of pathophysiology was taken to a new level. The 2 advanced nursing classes really reinforced common problems that can affect different parts of the human body and how care should be managed for these conditions. There was an abundance of learning during these 2 classes that really helped prepare us for clinical rotations andShow MoreRelatedDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesand prepare material for class. Chapter-by-chapter activities, including built-in pretests and posttests, focus on what you need to learn and to review in order to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Kim S. Cameron UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich ParisRead MoreProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 Pagespermcoordinator@wiley.com. Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives orwritten sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein

Professional Communication Skills for Nurses

Question: Discuss about the Professional Communication Skills for Nurses. Answer: Communication is an important part of nursing practice to promote safety, health and well-being of patients. As nurses, have complex role and have to deal with diverse patient group, professional communication knowledge is imperative for them to facilitate better collaboration with staffs and patients, yield better patient outcome, reduce error, improve patient satisfaction and promote efficiency care. Apart from the communication skill of nurses and clinician in practice, professional communication is also dependent on use of effective health information technology and care delivery model in hospital (Arnold Boggs, 2015).The aim of this essay is to discuss the importance of professional communication in ensuring safety of patients and ways to develop the professional communication skills of staff in care. Patient-centered care is a necessary element of professional communication process in health care. With the change in system of health care delivery, patient-centered care promotes patient-safe communication in clinical setting. Patient-centered care is delivered on the values and principle of autonomy, dignity, respect, transparency and empathy. Patients come in clinical setting with their own understanding and knowledge about disease and illness and patient-centered care approach helps staff to engage in mutually beneficial partnership with patients. Nurses and clinician working on the basis of this approach appreciate the values and life history of patients that shapes their health relate knowledge. By this means, patient is actively involved in treatment and health care decision-making process. It enhances emotional and physical comfort of patients and ensure better coordination and continuity of care. Patient-safe health care practice and communication is possible by patient-cen tered approach as it is entirely dependent on consideration of patients preference and values while delivering care (Levett-Jones et al., 2014). Patient-safe communication enables health professional to share information with patients, clarify regarding treatment and verify information to establish a collaborative relation with patients. Nowadays clinicians and nurses are highly encouraged to interact with patients to understand their concern and do everything possible to make patient comfortable during the delivery of care. This approach of professional communication has an impact on patient outcomes in many ways. Effective communication has been identified in increasing compliance with medication, reducing stress and anxiety in patients, pain management and improving functional and psychological status of patients (Okuyama, Wagner, Bijnen, 2014). A randomized controlled trial study evaluated the impact of communication skills intervention for nurses in the quality of communication with critically ill patients. In this study, the quality of care was assessed by measures of depression and functional status of patients. Nurse s reported positive professional development in them such as acquisition of new skills to deliver bad news to patients and professionally responding to emotional distress in patients. This form of skills prepares nurses and clinicians to mitigate negative effects of illness and promote recovery of patients (Curtis et al., 2013). Efficiency of nurses and staff in patient documentation process is also an important aspect of professional and patient-safe communication. Written or electronically generated health record stores data on interaction with patients on levels such as assessment, diagnosis, treatment planning and evaluation of care. The presence of accurate and sophisticated management information system and provisions of accurate training to staffs in using these systems makes the care delivery process accurate, secure and confidential. Nurses are expected to review and revise the system so that high quality care is provided and there is minimum chance of medical error or risk to patient (Hill, Hall, Glew, 2017). The wide application of electronic health record in clinical setting has enhanced patient safety and improved the process of evaluating quality of care. It also promotes efficiency in workflow. Although there are numerous benefits of electronic health records, however nurses faced challenges in using it due its complex design and cumbersome electronic processes. With this problem, there is a need to adapt those tools that are specific to the work area of nurses. Furthermore, necessary training and skill development program is necessary before the implementation of electronic health record to achieve the purpose of safety and efficiency in the care process (Lavin, Harper, Barr, 2015). The national competency standards for the registered nurse as laid down by the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA) on professional practice by means of fulfilling legal, ethical and professional responsibilities in nursing practice. According the standard 2.1of nursing practice, nurses need to practice in accordance with professional code of ethics and conduct (National competency standards for the registered nurse, 2017). This is necessary in the communication process too so that sensitive needs of patients is met during the treatment or care process. Nurses can also engage in professional communication by having knowledge about profession conduct needed for nursing practice. The code of Professional Conduct for Nurses in Australia mentions that nurses are responsible for safe and competent nursing care and they need to ensure that care delegation does not compromise the quality of care. Following the standard of nursing practice is also important to enhance safety. Duri ng the communication process, safety can be maintained by means of respecting the dignity, culture and belief of people in receiving the treatment. This means refraining from discriminatory attitudes and protects the interest of patients in care (Code of Professional Conduct for Nurses in Australia, 2017). The essay summarized the importance of professional communication in patient safety and promoting positive health outcome for patients. Along with effective communication skill, patients centered care, use of appropriate documentation tool, knowledge of professional standards of nursing practices promotes the delivery of safe and quality care. Patient-centeredness is an important attribute of professional communication, which ensure care is delivered according to the preference and cultural values of patients. Proficiency of nurses in patient-centered communication prevents resentment among patients and eliminate any barrier experienced by staff in delivery of care. In order to maintain the dignity and better health of patient, it is necessary that organization takes necessary action to train newly placed nurse regarding appropriate professional communication and provide necessary tool to maximize safety and accuracy in the delivery of care. References Arnold, E. C., Boggs, K. U. (2015).Interpersonal relationships: Professional communication skills for nurses. Elsevier Health Sciences. Code of Professional Conduct for Nurses in Australia. (2017). Retrieved 13 April 2017, from https://file:///C:/Users/admin/Downloads/6_New-Code-of-Professional-Conduct-for-Nurses-August-2008-1-%20(2).PDF Curtis, J. R., Back, A. L., Ford, D. W., Downey, L., Shannon, S. E., Doorenbos, A. Z., ... Arnold, R. W. (2013). Effect of communication skills training for residents and nurse practitioners on quality of communication with patients with serious illness: a randomized trial.Jama,310(21), 2271-2281. Hill, R., Hall, H., Glew, P. J. (2017). Fundamentals of Nursing and Midwifery: A Person-Centred Approach to Care. Lavin, M., Harper, E., Barr, N. (2015). Health information technology, patient safety, and professional nursing care documentation in acute care settings.OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing,20(2). Levett-Jones, T., Gilligan, C., Outram, S., Horton, G. (2014). Key attributes of patient-safe communication| NOVA. The University of Newcastle's Digital Repository. National competency standards for the registered nurse. (2017). Retrieved 13 April 2017, from https://file:///C:/Users/admin/Downloads/Nursing-and-Midwifery-Board---Standard---National-competency-standards-for-the-registered-nurse%20(14).PDF

The Legacy Of Jackie Robinson Essay Example For Students

The Legacy Of Jackie Robinson Essay The Legacy Of Jackie Robinson Essay goes beyond the April 15, 1947 afternoon at Ebbets Field, when the Brooklyn Dodger infielder became the first black in the 20th century to play baseball in the major leagues. He changed the sport, and he changed the attitude of a lot of people in this country, Jackie Robinson fought for all the people that were fortunate, a lot of them are, especially the minority guys, to be able to play in the major leagues and the impact on the people of color today. Robinson was an undeniably great player who had some of his best years stolen from him. He was a speedster who led his team to six World Series, won Rookie of the Year honors, an MVP award and was a six-time All-Star. But its not because of his marvelous career that Jackies number 42 is retired in every major league ballpark. We will write a custom essay on The Legacy Of Jackie Robinson specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Its because on a chilly afternoon in 1947 at Ebbets Field, Robinson took the diamond for the Dodgers to become the first black man to play in a major league baseball game in the modern era. His stellar play and moreover, his poise under fire paved the way for baseball integration, as barriers broke down in baseball, they also started to crumble in society at large. While Jackie is best remembered for integrating major league baseball, an incident that occurred before his fame as a Dodger heralded his future as a warrior in the battle for civil rights. America entered World War II, as in most of America at the time; blacks suffered the indignation of segregation. Jim Crow laws the name given to the laws that created whites only restaurants, hotels, restrooms and other segregation held sway in the Army, too. Jim Crow rules called for white officers to lead black men in their segregated outfits. But the necessities of war were beginning to change things. Jackie was accepted to an integrated Officer Candidate School and assigned to Camp Hood, in Texas. It was there that he became entangled in an incident that nearly ended his military career and the future that he didnt know awaited him. One evening, while boarding a camp bus into town, he dutifully began moving to the back, as blacks were required to do. On his way down the aisle, he saw the wife of a friend sitting mid-way back, and sat down with her. After about five blocks, the driver, a white man, turned in his seat and ordered Jackie to move to the back of the bus. Robinson refused. The driver threatened to make trouble for him when the bus reached the station, but Jackie wouldnt budge. In 1942, Robinson was drafted into the U.S. Army and sent to a segregated unit in Fort Riley, Kansas, where under existing policy he could not enter Officers Candidate School. After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis, then stationed at Fort Riley, and other influential persons including Truman Gibson, an African American advisor, the secretary of war, black men were accepted for officer training. Upon completion of the course of study, Robinson was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1943. A racially charged incident at Fort Hood, Texas, threatened to discredit Robinsons service record, when in defiance of a bus drivers command to go to the rear of the bus, he refused to leave his seat. Robinson, a lifelong teetotaler and nonsmoker, was charged, originally, with public drunkenness, conduct unbecoming an officer, and willful disobedience. With a public outcry by fellow service men, the NAACP, and the black press, led by the Pittsburgh Courier and the Chicago Defender, the court martial ended in exoneration. Although, Honored internationally as the central figure in baseball, Jack Roosevelt Robinson, known in the world of baseball as Jackie Robinson, took the first steps toward integrating the sports major league teams when he signed a contract to play with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947. This gigantic stride, which prepared the way for the legendary feats of Willie Mays, Henry Aaron and Reggie Jackson was an early harbinger of the significant changes in contract discussions, reward, and general status of professional athletes addressed half a century later in the 1994-95 baseball .

Jobsintown.de Company Campaign Reflection

Jobsintown.de Company Campaign Reflection What is the campaign about? This campaign is a sensitizing platform that provides the necessary information regarding the prevailing job market conditions. The campaign, dubbed â€Å"Life’s too short for the wrong job,† is a creation of the Jobsintown.de Company which runs an online recruitment website. The primary target for this campaign is that potential job seekers, particularly those living in urban areas and are in the job search.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Jobsintown.de Company: Campaign Reflection specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Alternatively, some may be already employed but in fields that do not match their skills, knowledge, or potentials. The campaign targets all customers irrespective of income or education level. The company has identified a gap in the job market which it wants to fill by playing the agency role involving the linkage of job seekers, their customers, to the relevant e mployers. This has enabled the company to meet the ever-rising demand for this kind of service. What are the campaign’s objectives? Like other promotional activities, this campaign ad is aimed at making the agency service available to the public. Although the Jobsintown.de Company is keen in making claims from this particular advert, it is indirectly inviting public critiques and confrontations. This is likely to occur when the services rendered do not live up to the anticipated benefits. According to the class notes, any company that believes in putting its reputation on the line will always try harder than its competitors to fulfill its promises and maintain the reputation that it has already established with its clientele. The other objective of the company is to provide a wide range of services making the consumer to determine the ones that are in line with their needs. The company wants to offer different services across people from different social class and occupation. For instance, the photography that shows a person who is probably seeking the laundry services from a dry cleaner while the other one is doing the hand washing depicts a reflection of the society where people are in different social classes. There are those who are in need of certain services that are unaffordable to others hence the need to segment the market.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More What is the campaign’s strategy? How would you describe it? The company’s marketers have established that the best way to advertise and sell services is to ensure that there is satisfaction of genuine needs. In regards to this, the company has decided to use reflection advertising to reach its target audience. This choice not only makes the intended message special, but also unique. As described in the class notes, the use of realistic images tends to be more ap pealing to people especially when the practicality of the claims forms the basis of the customer’s decision. The company has managed to keep its message and purpose simple. This is critical in the process of ensuring that effective motivation prevails. The strategy adopted by the company will enable it achieve its goal of transforming the audience’s state of ignorance into a state of satisfaction. For that reason, the overall outcome will be good. Looking at the pictures given, it is evident that the company has strategized on how to show the problem to its customers and the corresponding action to be taken. The campaign packages itself as the opportune moment to effect a change in their job search routine. The company has done an extensive market research and, for that reason, the campaign will gain much acceptance and support from the public. Do you consider the campaign to be effective or ineffective? Why? It would be very subjective to claim that the campaign is in effective. However, some may find the ad to be offensive depending on the types of occupations highlighted. On the contrary, sometimes, the campaign ad offends in order to gain attention. Some of the pictures used in the ad are somehow disturbing in the sense that some certain fundamental issues such as hygiene are overlooked. In respect to this, this campaign ad is some sort of distraction marketing where the products are not as offensive as they made be deemed to be from their advertisements. In as much as the campaign may seem to be offensive to some extent, it is not deceptive. It would quite obvious that the consumers would turn against a service that exhibits deceptive advertising. For that matter the Jobsintown.de Company has played it safe in their campaign presentations.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Jobsintown.de Company: Campaign Reflection specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Who is this campaign for? How does it relate (or not) to you? The primary target for this campaign is those people who are already employed but in irrelevant fields. This campaign aims at realigning the skills, knowledge, and potentials with the relevant jobs. Additionally, the campaign is targeting a market segment that comprises of job seekers who have not yet found the kind of jobs that match their diverse skills. Although this campaign targets a particular market segment, it has the spillover social benefits such as supporting the freedom of media, stimulating the development of new services, and providing a channel to disseminate information regarding social issues. The statement â€Å"Life’s too short for the wrong job† is not only precautionary, but also educational especially to students who are yet to meet their career choices. The message derived from this campaign slogan is direct and straightforward.

Homograph Examples

Homograph Examples Homograph Examples Homograph Examples By Sharon Homographs are words with different pronunciation, meanings and origins but the same spelling. They are not to be confused with homonyms, homophones and heteronyms. In order to work out which pronunciation and which meaning is appropriate, you need to be aware of the context. Here are a few homographs and their meanings: agape with mouth open OR love bass type of fish OR low, deep voice bat - piece of sports equipment OR an animal bow type of knot OR to incline down a lower place OR soft fluff on a bird entrance the way in OR to delight evening smoothing out OR after sunset fine of good quality OR a levy learned past tense of learn OR knowledgeable minute tiny OR unit of time moped was gloomy OR motorcyle number more numb OR numerical value row line OR argument OR propel a boat sewer drain OR person who sews wave move the hand in greeting OR sea water coming into shore wound past tense of wind OR to injure Linguist John Higgins has prepared a comprehensive list of homographs in various categories, including those where the meanings are related but the part of speech and pronunciation change. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:30 Synonyms for â€Å"Meeting†50 Types of PropagandaPeople vs. Persons

Public law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Public law - Essay Example His past record has shown his tendencies towards committing suicide due to the above mentioned mental state. Community Support & attitude: Mr. Imran has received no support from his community and was in constant danger within Iran (his native country) and within the UK (where he is currently residing). Recently Mr. Imran has been asked to leave his accommodation. Background of Mr. Imran: Mr. Imran had been accused of promoting gay rights in Iran, which has led to his departure from Iran to the UK. Capital punishment for the offence in Iran is the death sentence. Mr. Imran’s house was subject to a raid by the Iranian Authorities in the year 2009, which became the reason for his fleeing to the UK. Statements of Facts: Mr. Imran had to flee from Iran as he was in fear of his life. Promoting gay rights within the UK is not considered offense. Mr. Imran does not have any past criminal record. The client has been mentally disturbed due to the nature of events. He has in 2010, attemp ted to commit suicide when his partner was caught in Iraq. He is currently seeking help from Government of the UK, in the form of Asylum. Constant threat looms around Mr. Imran’s life within Iran, not only from Iranian Authorities, but also the Iranian society. As Islamic law prohibits promoting gay rights, and any individual found guilty would be given death sentence. People also consider such person as outcasts and have aggressive attitude towards such person. Issues to be Addressed – For Consideration of His Asylum Application in the UK: 1. Is the applicant any threat to the Government or to the people of the UK? 2. Could the applicant live a tolerable life, if he is made to return to Iran? 3. Had the applicant openly disclosed his sexuality, what would have transpired? 4. Presence of evidence suggesting that the applicant is sexually gay? 5. Was the applicant concealing his sexuality because of the social pressure or was he concealing it to avoid prosecution? Brief Summary of Replies for the Above Questions- Clients Perspective: Since the applicant is himself a victim and does not hold any criminal record, he does not pose any threat to the UK Government and its people. He can provide facts about his relation with his partner and can also take assistance from previous affiliations, if he had any with the gay community or social working groups. He can easily provide evidence of ill treatment from the Authorities and communities towards gays in Iran, by providing cases of people who had been already acquitted with such charges. It is almost impossible for him to return to Iran and keep his sexuality discreet and live a normal life. Summary of Relevant Statuary Provisions According to the law’s of United Kingdom, a person will only be granted asylum if he is in the UK. He is a person who is either a refugee or an individual who required International protection. The individual in any ground is a threat to security, or he has not been conv icted for any serious crime, or does not present any threats or dangers to the society of the United Kingdom. Any individual’s application in such matter, if denied and the individual due to denial has to leave to a country where that individual is threatened for his life falls within breach of Geneva Convention. In the United Kingdom, grave harm comprises of the capital punishments like execution, torturing, unlawful killing, harsh treatment, which disgraces or, degrades an individual. Any threats which can

Healthcare in the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Healthcare in the US - Essay Example Policy issues, adverse economic conditions, and other trends and practices have been cited as some of the fundamental causes of the rise in healthcare costs both in the state, federal, and local governments. The sharp increases in healthcare expenditure have had various negative consequences to other sectors of the economy and the average livelihood of the American citizens. Financial pressure on families, challenges on the part of the employers, and a reduction in spending on other important sectors of the economy are some of the negative consequences of increased healthcare spending. Recent figures show that the rate of healthcare spending is significantly higher than average economic growth. The implication, according to economists, is that the rate of spending on healthcare is much faster than the rate of economic activities in other sectors of the economy. The imbalance in economic activities and healthcare expenditure shows that the levels may not be sustainable in the end (The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation Web). Usually, economic activities are determined by the manner in which countries devote significant amounts of money to certain sectors with the intention of improving the conditions of trade and the balance of economic systems. The statistics show that healthcare spending has grown by over 3.0 percentage points higher than the nominal GDP. It is necessary to establish some of the intervention measures that the federal, state, and local governments have undertaken in order to reduce the adverse impact of expenditure on the economy. The impact of negative economic growth manifests itself in terms of the various issues that connect with the specifics of economic growth. The question regarding the need to control the healthcare industry continues to polarize the health debate in the United States due to various factors that connect with costs, protection of the citizens, affordability, and quality. Among the objectives raised by the proponents of in creased government regulation of the sector is the matter of checking of rising costs of healthcare and the laxity of employers to meet the costs of employees’ medical insurance premium (The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation Web). A related concern is the adverse impact of increased spending on healthcare on other important sectors of the economy. Projected increase in healthcare expenditure implies that the government would not be able to cater appropriately for other matters of priority. Proponents of control argue that the general intention of controlling government expenditure aligns with the need to stabilize economic growth. On the other hand, those opposed to the government’s regulatory practices argue that increased regulation would slacken private initiative and discourage investment into the healthcare industry. In line with this argument, critics of government regulation contend that the practice contravenes the letter and spirit of a free market economy for which the United States is famed (Boscheck 75). Those who hold onto this view argue in favor of uncontrolled regulation point towards the need to develop alternative structures of stability as one of the ways through which stability of the healthcare industry and other related aspects of the economy can be controlled. The common impression in the perspectives of critics who challenge the free market healthcare model is that the system has failed. Exorbitant costs of healthca

The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant Essay Example for Free

The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant Essay I. iNTRODUCTION TO FRENCH LITERATURE French literature is, generally speaking, literature written in the French language, particularly by citizens of France; it may also refer to literature written by people living in France who speak traditional languages of France other than French. Literature written in French language, by citizens of other nations such as Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Algeria, Morocco, etc. is referred to as Francophone literature. As of 2006, French writers have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country. France itself ranks first in the list of Nobel Prizes in literature by country. The French language is a romance dialect derived from Vulgar Latin (non-standard Latin) and heavily influenced principally by Celtic and Frankish. Beginning in the 11th century, literature written in medieval French was one of the oldest vernacular (non-Latin) literatures in western Europe and it became a key source of literary themes in the Middle Ages across the continent. Although the European prominence of French literature was eclipsed in part by vernacular literature in Italy in the 14th century, literature in France in the 16th century underwent a major creative evolution, and through the political and artistic programs of the Ancien Rà ©gime, French literature came to dominate European letters in the 17th century. In the 18th century, French became the literary lingua franca and diplomatic language of western Europe (and, to a certain degree, in America), and French letters have had a profound impact on all European and American literary traditions while at the same time being heavily influenced by these other national traditions (for example: British and German Romanticism in the nineteenth century). French literary developments of the 19th and 20th centuries have had a particularly strong effect on modern world literature, including: symbolism, naturalism, the roman-fleuves of Balzac, Zola and Proust, surrealism, existentialism, and the Theatre of the Absurd. French imperialism and colonialism in the Americas, Africa, and the far East have brought the French language to non-European cultures that are transforming and adding to the French literary experience today. II. aUthor’s biography Guy de Maupassant Henri-Renà ©-Albert-Guy de Maupassant was born on August 5, 1850 at the chà ¢teau de Miromesnil, near Dieppe in the Seine-Infà ©rieure (now Seine-Maritime) department in France. He was the first son of Laure Le Poittevin and Gustave de Maupassant, both from prosperous bourgeois families. When Maupassant was 37 and his brother Hervà © was five, his mother, an independent-minded woman, risked social disgrace to obtain a legal separation from her husband. After the separation, Le Poittevin kept her two sons, the elder Guy and younger Hervà ©. With the father’s absence, Maupassant’s mother became the most influential figure in the young boy’s life. She was an exceptionally well read woman and was very fond of classical literature, especially Shakespeare. Until the age of thirteen, Guy happily lived with his mother, to whom he was deeply devoted, at Étretat, in the Villa des Verguies, where, between the sea and the luxuriant countryside, he grew very fond of fishing and outdoor activities. III. Elements of a Short Story III. Elements of a Short Story A. Setting of the Story * Time: 19th Century, Second Half * Place: Paris, France B. Characters: * Mathilde Loisel-a pretty young woman born into a common, middle-class family. She yearns for wealth, privileges, and fashions of highborn young ladies * Monsieur Loisel-a government clerk in the Ministry of Education whom Mathilde marries * Madame Jeanne Forestier-a friend of Mathilde’s. She allows Mathilde to borrow a necklace to wear to a gala social event. * Loisel Housemaid-a girl from Brittany who does the Loisel’s housework. Her presence reminds Mathilde of her own status as a commoner * C. Plot C. Plot Monsieur and Madame Georges Rampounneau-Minister of Education, and his wife. They invite the Loisels to the party. C1. Exposition Mathilde is a pretty and charming woman, born of simple roots and humble beginnings, relished with both the love and warmth of a family though not well-off financially yet considerably contemporary to the families in the middle of the hierarchy. She was married to Monsieur Loisel, a government clerk who works round-the-clock at the Ministry of Education. She has always dreamt of a life of luxury and leisure, with attentive maidservants, a large home decorated with coveted linens, expensive jewels and fancy silverware. Mortified of the humiliating state she’s in, she no longer visits Madame Forestier, an old friend of hers. C2. Rising Action The Loisels receive an envelope with a letter inviting them to an affair at the Ministry of Education, as honored guests of Monsieur Georges Rampouneau, Head and Minister to Education. Monsiuer Loisel gets an expression completely opposite to what he was expecting for. Mathilde grows worried and tirelessly distraught for she has not a single dress to wear for the occasion. She needs something extravagant and fancy, but a piece of clothing of such delicate formality would cost Monsieur Loisel a sum of four hundred Francs-the exact amount he’s been saving for to buy himself a rifle. The day of the fete draws nearer, and Mathilde becomes increasingly downcast and hopeless. Loisel begins to ask Mathilde the cause of her misery, and is later greeted with an answer of coveted jewelry. Monsieur Loisel suggests that she borrows jewels from her friend, Madame Jeanne Forestier. Mathilde wastes no time and visits her the following morning. Madame Forestier, agreeable and willing to coope rate, opens a box and tells her to choose one. Glittering jewels and sought-after handcrafted gems later, Mathilde cherry-picks a necklace, one encrusted with diamonds of genuine value. C3. Climax The day of the party comes and Mathilde becomes the center of everybody’s attention. Highly-acquainted men of noble stature all ask who she is and start to line-up to dance with her. The Loisels revel in joy and merriment and left no longer than four in the morning. On their way out, Monsiuer Loisel puts a wrap around Mathilde’s shoulders-a piece of clothing from her daily wardrobe. She hurries out hastily to prevent herself from being seen in it. Subject to the frigid coldness of the early morning, they look for means of transportation. They later find a cab and are took back home to the Rues de Martyrs. In her bedroom, Mathilde stands before the mirror and gazes intently at the woman who has beguiled so many men. Then out of sheer horror, she untimely realizes that the necklace is gone. Mathilde begins to search through their things while Monsiuer Loisel retraces their steps, hopeful that he might stumble across the necklace they’ve lost. With bitter hopes and foul resentment, they find nothing and return empty-handed. C4. Falling Action Mathilde decides to write to Madame Forestier, informing her that the necklace’s clasp has been broken and is being repaired. They conclude that their only recourse is to replace it all in due time. They traverse Paris and go from jeweler to jeweler, hoping to know how a necklace of such appraisal could cost them. The Loisels find one at the Palais Royal, with a staggering value of thirty-six thousand Francs. To raise enough money, Monsiuer Loisel spends all of his savings and decides to borrow the rest, writing promissory notes and placing signature after signature on numerous contracts. The Loisels manage to buy it, and Mathilde takes it to Madame Forestier, who is considerably aggravated at how late it was given. The couple, thereafter, struggles to pay their debt. Mathilde dismisses their housemaid and does the housework herself-washing dishes, taking out garbage, and fulfilling other lowly pains. Monsieur Loisel, on the other hand, shifts to a bookkeeper and copyist. C5. Denouement A decade later, they manage to free themselves from debt. By this time, Mathilde is a full-on unmistakable commoner. She staggers with rough hands, unornamented clothes, and disheveled hair. Occasionally, she reminisces back to the day when she still had the necklace and when so many men admired her. What, then, would have happened if she never lost the necklace in the first place? On one Sunday morning at the Champs Elysees, she encounters Madame Forestier. Mathilde addresses her yet Madame Forestier vaguely remembers anything at the spark of insight. After Mathilde identifies herself, she decides to tell her the truth. There would be no consequence or harm in fessing up since the necklace has already been paid full-on in Francs now-through all those painstaking nights of menial tasks and humble labors, working tirelessly to measure up to her obligation. But Mathilde never knew the other side of the story when she borrowed the necklace on that fateful day in France. It was fake, a non-discrete imitation with counterfeit diamonds and phony encrusted jewels. At most, it was worth five-hundred Francs, a sum evidently not worth wasting ten long years on staggering debt. C6. Theme * Appearances are Deceiving * Appearances are Deceiving Mathilde Loisel believed the necklace genuine the moment she saw it. Likewise, she believed that all the people at the party were real, genuine human beings because of their social standing and their possessions. The necklace, of course, was a fake. And, Maupassant implies, so were the people at the party who judged her on her outward appearance. v. creative presentation Appearances are Appearances are deceiving. not everything deceiving. not everything is always as it seems. is always as it seems. Appearances are deceiving. Things are not always as they seem. Things, even people, are not solely judged on the surface. The things you do, the words you speak, and the silence of your thoughts say a lot about who you are and where you’ve come from. A piece of fruit may prove fresh and clean on the outside, but may turn out rotten and uncannily unkempt on the inside. A piece of jewelry may seem pretty and coveted on the surface, but may soon prove fabricated and fake. To simply judge a book by its cover or to impulsively classify people by the color of their skin never does you any good. If you are too quick to judge and too hasty to comprehend, then judgment will toil and get the best of you. Resentment comes later, and we learn from our mistakes. Yet it is also better and pointedly wiser to practice prudence in thoughts, and patience in both scrutiny and human criticism. Our perspective towards ordinary people who are often subdued by irrational discrimination and stereotypical violence tells a lot about ourselves. The human mind is as subtle as a piece of paper; it is easily swerved and effortlessly influenced, either by moral thoughts or unethical standpoints and failures. Einstein once said, â€Å"Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid.† If you constantly judge failure after failure and jump hastily into conclusions, people are bound to stagger and take fault after fault as wounds that scar and never heal. They are eventually lead to wallow in depression and self-pity; to wander aimlessly in the void of anxiety and thoughtless failure. You never know how a person does things if you never give them the chance to prove themselves. Everybody is different. We stand out in different ways-at different things. If you fail to give yourself the opportunity to grasp the beauty in their flaws, you need to change yourself. The only factor troubling the equation, the only error that blocks common thought is you and your petty way of thinking. In all honesty, there is nothing wrong with people with defects or disabilities. If negativity arrives and consumes you, then the problem is not them, it’s you-inside you. The sheer lack of comprehension devours anything that’s left. And once it does, reasons are left unnoticed and haplessly ignored. Guy de Maupassant’s â€Å"The Necklace† introduced me to a whole new chapter towards the true meaning of Acceptance. I realized that we can never fully understand what real happiness feels like if we can’t find it within ourselves to let go of our immeasurably high standards in life and accept ourselves for who we are, and what we’ve gone through. Acceptance is about reeling in optimism to forego negativity; it’s about giving up on false hopes and ending broken promises. Life is almost always unfair. We fall down and wallow at depression. We spend too much time focusing on closed doors that we fail to notice the one that’s newly been opened for us. We waste our time meddling with toilsome thoughts on depravity and failure-blinded by both our errors and resentments-that we lose track of what it is that truly matters: the truth. We overshadow the truthiness of our thoughts by allowing self-doubt and conceit to smother us mercilessly. We lose the capacity to think rationally and suffocate in total despair and agony-almost to the point of self-infliction and hate. But Hatred is vindictive. It is spiteful. It is pitiless, and hostile. We lose our chances the moment we lose ourselves. And when we lose our chances-the countless opportunities that have been shed to veer us towards acceptance-we lose at life. It is awfully bitter end, for an awfully bitter life. People are people, and we can never change that. We are subtly driven to maddening influence and suffer relentlessly under the vetoes of hindsight. The human society possesses traits of opposing sides. Half refer to people who have fallen bitterly from grace and think ill of the other half-those who relish in the context of ecstasy and juvenile jubilation; of wonders at liberty of both haste and lustful agitation. Jealousy is unwarranted. It is the birthplace of dysfunctional delusion; the root of hapless paranoia. The human mind easily surrenders to maddening oppression. Obstinate intolerance toils with the frailty of innocence and insensibility. A person is blessed with a myriad of chances and opportunities. A chance to live, a chance to love, a chance to learn, and a chance to grow. But when push comes to shove, oftentimes there’s little we can rummage through; chances are left tainted and severed, and hopes grow unwarranted and shattered. We are fragile little things. When we give up, we break. And when we lose, we fall. To grow a tiny little seedling, it needs to be nurtured and shown affection. To grow an innocent human being, it needs to be loved and shown undivided attention. When we care, it shows. It materializes as words of driven thought-as actions of wholly profound meaning. People who grow dissatisfied and tainted with hatred are people who need guidance and love; an atmosphere that reverberates the echoes of paradise and glory; an area isolated from fear, a place sequestered from sorrow. Dreams come true, and nothing is impossible. Reality might be cruel, but optimism is endless. We fall from grace and deliciate in vainglory-traits unmistakable of derivative human nature yet never inescapable. Happy endings are real, nightmares are short. Life is a bittersweet fantasy-we have our ups, and we have our downs. We fail and we succeed. We fall but strive to stand up. The important thing is to try, and to never stop trying.

Conflict in All My Sons Essays -- All My Sons Parent Child Relationshi

Conflict in All My Sons The conflict in the play â€Å"All My Sons† in embodied by two different sets of values. The older generation represented by Joe and Kate strongly believed in family values and Pursue of the American dream at any cost. In contradiction, Joe and Anne express the younger generation’s ethics and ideals clearly shown in the thoughts of idealism that money is not the most important thing in life. Even though the younger generation’s ideals are sometimes thought of as being irrational and in conflict with reality, all throughout the play their validity is greater. Many times in parents-child relationships the parents have a very different view on things than the child they had raised. Most of these gaps are produced as a consequence of the different times they have grown in. In the play â€Å"All My Sons† the diversity between the two generations with two sets of ideals are mostly not a result of generation gap but a result of greediness and age. Many people when they are young see the world from a more optimistic point of view and that is true for Chris and Anne. As people get old and have their own kids they are thought of to be more rational in their actions in order to protect their children. Joe Keller worked his whole life trying to create a better future for his sons, but at what cost? Arthur Miller’s main point in the play is that people should look beyond their inner circle of society. Joe chose to ignore whatever does not concern his little circle. Although optimism is clearly shown in Chris’ words his ideals are not to be mixed with dreams for they could be a reality. All throughout the play Chris is convincing people to believe in his reality. Some of them, the Doctor for example, believe that Chris is right and a life that is not so money centered is possible. Others, the Doctor’s wife for example, on the other hand, do no take Chris seriously because of his young age and poor experience in carrying out his own ideas. She expresses that by saying that Chris should go and work on his own before he preaches others. Her disagreement about her husband working in research is excused with a money issue. This shows the reader once again that the parent generation in this play, who are supposed to be representing the American Dream, chose to give up happiness for money. Do American ideals not include â€Å"pursuit of happiness†? Chri... ...Even though her words express understanding more than agreement for Joe, she expresses no morals or any opinions for that matter. The reader would expect her to have her own tragic ending as well for through out the play she consists on the fact that her life would come to an end if she finds out that Larry did in fact die. Different generation gaps may result in different ideas of curfew or bedtime but should not result in diverse ideas on humanity and morality, for these are universal issues that had always been in effect all through time. That is why Keller’s ideals are no more than an excuse to do bad things and then feel that what he has done was the right thing to do for it was â€Å"all for his sons†. The end of the play and the climax of finding out Keller was guilty in delivering the broken cylinder heads are a push for Chris to practice his ideals and live on his own as appose to with his parents using his parents money. After this tragic moment for Chris when he finds out that everything he had believe in and protected were lies he started doubting his morals but the readers and the audience knows that he knows where the line of morality is and he would never cross it.

Linguistics and Language Essay

The term dialect (from the ancient Greek word dialektos, â€Å"discourse†, from dia, â€Å"through† + lego, â€Å"I speak†) is used in two distinct ways, even by linguists. One usage refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language’s speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. [2] A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed as ethnolect, and a regional dialect may be termed a regiolect or topolect. The other usage refers to a language that is socially subordinate to a regional or national standard language, often historically cognate to the standard, but not a variety of it or in any other sense derived from it. Dialect: This is a complex and often misunderstood concept. For linguists, a dialect is the collection of attributes (phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, and semantic) that make one group of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same language. COMMON SOURCES OF MISUNDERSTANDING: 1) DIALECT is NOT a negative term for linguists. . Often times, for example, we hear people refer to non-standard varieties of English as â€Å"dialects†, usually to say something bad about the non-standard variety (and thus about the people who speak it). This happened quite a bit during last year’s ebonics controversy. But, the term dialect refers to ANY variety of a language. Thus, by definition, we all speak a dialect of our native language. 2) DIALECT is NOT synonymous with accent. Accent is only a part of dialectal variation. Non-linguists often think accents define a dialect (or that accents alone identify people as non-native or foreign language speakers). Also, non-linguists tend to think that it’s always the â€Å"other† people that have â€Å"an accent†. So, what is â€Å"accent†? 3) ACCENT: This term refers to phonological variation, i. e.variation in pronunciation Thus, if we talk about a Southern Accent; we’re talking about a generalized property of English pronunciation in the Southern part of the US. But, Southern dialects have more than particular phonological properties. Accent is thus about pronunciation, while dialect is a broader term encompassing syntactic, morphological, and semantic properties as well. A final note on accent. WE ALL HAVE ONE! There is no such thing as a person who speaks without an accent. This is not an exercise in political correctness, by the way. It is a fact. In sum, a dialect is a particular variety of a language, and we all have a dialect. Accent refers to the phonology of a given dialect. Since we all have a dialect, we all have an accent. Idiolect: Another term that we must be familiar with is idiolect. â€Å"What’s an idiolect? † you ask, on the edge of your seat. An idiolect is simply the technical term we use to refer to the variety of language spoken by each individual speaker of the language. Just as there is variation among groups of speakers of a language, there is variation from speaker to speaker. No two speakers of a language speak identically. Each speaks her or his own particular variety of that language. Each thus speaks her or his own idiolect. Role of Dialect: Language says a lot about our identity. Americans, Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans all speak differently. When we meet somebody from a different part of the country, they may use different words, sounds or grammatical structures. A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic of a certain area. For instance, in the Northern Cape, people refer to older people as grootmense and paper as pampier whereas in Pretoria they are called oumense and papier. If you hear colored people from Cape Town speaking Afrikaans, they sound different to Afrikaans spoken elsewhere. People from Natal speak English in different ways to people from Johannesburg etc. So often, the way we speak says a lot about where we are from, who we are and what we care about. So studying dialects is one way of validating people’s identities and ways of life. Characteristics of Dialect: There are ten characteristics of dialect. 1. Dialect can be identified by variation of grammar. 2. Dialect can be identified by variation of vocabulary. 3. Dialect can be identified by variation of prosody. 4. Dialect can be identified by variation of sentence structure. 5. Dialect can be identified by variation of figures of speech. 6. Variance of parent language by social class of speakers. 7. Variance of parent language by region inhabited by speakers. 8. Likely will not have its own written literature. 9. Likely speakers will not have state or nation of their own. 10. Likely region-specific for speakers. Difference between Dialect and Register: To describe differences we have to first understand these two terms separately. What is Dialect? A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists: Cockney is a dialect of English. What is Register? In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g. â€Å"walking†, not â€Å"walkin'†), choose more formal words (e. g. father vs. dad, child vs. kid, etc. ), and refrain from using contractions such as ain’t, than when speaking in an informal setting. Now it is time to differentiate both terms. A dialect is a variety of language used by different speech communities, whereas register is a variety of language associated with people’s occupation. Register is to do with variation in language use connected with topic matter. â€Å"One’s dialect shows who (or what) he/she is, while one’s register shows what he/she is doing†. Dialect is a special form of speaking belonging to a group. Register is a linguistic term used to describe changing how one talks based on the situation. 1. Dialect: a local variety of a language*, usually understood by speakers of other dialects of the same language, often without a standardized grammar or spelling, used mostly for non-formal purposes in a local community or among people coming from the same community but living in another community than that they came from. There is often no consensus if such a local language variety is a dialect or a language. The choice is usually taken on the basis of political or conventional criteria and never on linguistic ones. 2. A speech register: a way of speaking or writing including vocabulary, syntax and pronunciation (or spelling) chosen by individuals to express themselves depending on the circumstances they speak: high register (formal occasions like parliamentary speech, official documents, celebrations), low register (informal occasions, conversations among family or friends’ group). There are also many in-between registers and specialized occasions like religious services, sport events, and so on. An individual may choose his dialect as a speech register for informal occasions, and a standardized language of a larger social unit on formal occasions (often called diglossia). Register: In linguistics, one of many styles or varieties of language determined by such factors as social occasion, purpose, and audience, also called stylistic variation. More generally, register is used to indicate degrees of formality in language use. The different registers or language styles that we use are sometimes called codes. According to a linguist Robert MacNeil (1989) the example of Register is; â€Å"It fascinates me how differently we all speak in different circumstances. We have levels of formality, as in our clothing. There are very formal occasions, often requiring written English: the job application or the letter to the editor–the dark-suit, serious-tie language, with everything pressed and the lint brushed off. There is our less formal out-in-the-world language–a more comfortable suit, but still respectable. There is language for close friends in the evenings, on weekends–blue-jeans-and-sweat-shirt language, when it’s good to get the tie off. There is family language, even more relaxed, full of grammatical short cuts, family slang, echoes of old jokes that have become intimate shorthand–the language of pajamas and uncombed hair. Finally, there is the language with no clothes on; the talk of couples–murmurs, sighs, grunts–language at its least self-conscious, open, vulnerable, and primitive. † Role of Register: Its chief importance is social. It signals the kind of interaction the speaker wants, or acceptance/no acceptance of the kind of interaction expected in any situation. For instance, level of formality is a major aspect of English register. Highly formal register can signal authority, disapproval, unfriendliness. Informal register can signal various things: genuine friendliness; a fake attempt to come across as friendly; or even deliberate disrespect if the other speaker expects formal register. Choice of register can also signal social class, in areas where this is still an issue. Higher classes tend to use a more formal register in ordinary conversation. Understanding the difference between register and grammar is important, as many speakers confuse the two: particularly in thinking that only formal register is correct grammar. This can lead to major errors of register: for instance, the highly formal â€Å"It is I† is only correct in the most formal register, and using it under any other circumstances will make a speaker sound a pompous idiot to most speakers. Characteristics/ Features of Register: 1) Language Styles â€Å"Every native speaker is normally in command of several different language styles, sometimes called registers, which are varied according to the topic under discussion, the formality of the occasion, and the medium used (speech, writing, or sign). â€Å"Adapting language to suit the topic is a fairly straightforward matter. Many activities have a specialized vocabulary. If you are playing a ball game, you need to know that ‘zero’ is a duck in cricket, love in tennis, and nil in soccer. If you have a drink with friends in a pub, you need to know greetings such as: Cheers! Here’s to your good health! â€Å"Other types of variation are less clear-cut. The same person might utter any of the following three sentences, depending on the circumstances: I should be grateful if you would make less noise. Please be quiet. Shut up! Here the utterances range from a high or formal style, down to a low or informal one–and the choice of a high or low style is partly a matter of politeness. † (Jean Aitcheson, Teach You Linguistics. Hodder, 2003) 2) Participants in an Exchange â€Å"Like variation in our manner of dress, stylistic variations in language cannot be judged as appropriate or not without reference to the participants in the interchange (i. e. , speaker and listener or reader and writer). For example, you would not speak to a 5-year-old child, an intimate friend, and a professor using the same style of speech. Using the term eleemosynary ‘charitable’ would probably be inappropriate for the child and the friend, while using number one ‘urinate’ would probably be inappropriate for the friend and the professor. † (Frank Parker and Kathryn Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists, 3rd ed. Ellyn & Bacon, 1999) 3) Register Features â€Å"Register features are core lexical and grammatical characteristics found to some extent in almost all texts and registers. . . . â€Å"Any linguistic feature having a functional or conventional association can be distributed in a way that distinguishes among registers. Such features come from many linguistic classes, including: phonological features (pauses, intonation patterns), tense and aspect markers, pronouns and pro-verbs, questions, nominal forms (nouns, nominalizations, gerunds), passive constructions, dependent clauses (complement clauses, relative clauses, adverbial subordination), prepositional phrases, adjectives, adverbs, measures of lexical specificity (once-occurring words, type-token ratio), lexical classes (hedges, emphatics, discourse particles, stance markers), modals, specialized verb classes (speech act verbs, mental process verbs), reduced forms (contractions, that-deletions), co-ordination, negation, and grammatical devices for structuring information (clefts, extra position). â€Å" A comprehensive linguistic analysis of a register requires consideration of a representative selection of linguistic features. Analyses of these register features are necessarily quantitative, because the associated register distinctions are based on differences in the relative distribution of linguistic features. † (Douglas Biber Dimensions of Register Variation: A Cross-Linguistic Comparison. Cambridge University Press, 1995) Sociolinguistics: (Wikipedia) â€Å"Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the sociology of language focuses on language’s effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e. g. , ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc. , and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place; language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolect that sociolinguistics studies. † Sociolinguistics is the study of how language serves and is shaped by the social nature of human beings. In its broadest conception, sociolinguistics analyzes the many and diverse ways in which language and society entwine. This vast field of inquiry requires and combines insights from a number of disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, psychology and anthropology. Sociolinguistics examines the interplay of language and society, with language as the starting point. Variation is the key concept, applied to language itself and to its use. The basic premise of sociolinguistics is that language is variable and changing. As a result, language is not homogeneous — not for the individual user and not within or among groups of speakers who use the same language. By studying written records, sociolinguists also examine how language and society have interacted in the past. For example, they have tabulated the frequency of the singular pronoun thou and its replacement you in dated hand-written or printed documents and correlated changes in frequency with changes in class structure in 16th and 17th century England. This is historical sociolinguistics: the study of relationship between changes in society and changes in language over a period of time. Branches of sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics can be defined broadly or narrowly – Broad: branch of linguistics studying those properties of language which require reference to social, including contextual, factors in their explanation Narrow: seeks to explain patterned co-variation of language and society; seeks rules to account for that variation. Some traditions of sociolinguistic investigation: 1) Linguistic variation: (sociolinguistics proper): focuses on the linguistic variable that correlates with social differences. Unit of study is language itself considered a part of linguistics. 2) Ethnography of speaking: emphasis on various aspects of context that are involved in differing interpretations of language use. Unit of analysis is not language itself but rather the users of language: the speech community generally considered part of sociology or anthropology. 3) Language planning (also applied sociolinguistics, sociology of language): emphasis on practical aspects of this study. Much about language contact issues and language use in education.

The Efficacy of Malunggay

Chapter I Introduction A. Background of the Study Malunggay is a popular plant that is dubbed â€Å"miracle tree† or â€Å"natures medicine cabinet† by scientists and health care workers worldwide because of its proven nutritional benefits as well as, reported medical properties. In the Philippines Malunggay is widely cultivated and can be found in the backyard of many Filipino homes. It is a low-maintenance plant. It can grow in almost any kind of soil and is drought resistant. The Malunggays main values are as source of nutrients.Its medicinal properties are limited and mostly unproven. It also helps to control blood pressure, relieves headaches and migraines. Blood clotting, or coagulation, is an important process that prevents excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. Platelets (a type of blood cell) and proteins in your plasma (the liquid part of blood) work together to stop the bleeding by forming a clot over the injury. Typically, your body will naturall y dissolve the blood clot after the injury has healed.Sometimes, however, clots form on the inside of vessels without an obvious injury or do not dissolve naturally. These situations can be dangerous and require accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Clots can occur in veins or arteries, which are vessels that are part of the body’s circulatory system. While both types of vessels help transport blood throughout the body, they each function differently. Veins are low-pressure vessels that carry deoxygenated blood away from the body’s organs and back to the heart.An abnormal clot that forms in a vein may restrict the return of blood to the heart and can result in pain and swelling as the blood gathers behind the clot. B. Objectives: The study aimed to determine the efficacy of Malunggay leaves (Moringa Oleifera) leaves extract in increasing the platelet count of albino mice. Specifically, it aimed to compare the platelet counts of these mice given doses of the pla nt extract before and after the treatments. C. Hypothesis: The study is guided by the following hypotheses:Null: That Malunggay leaves (Moringa Oleifera) decoction is as significant as the control in increasing the platelet count of albino mice. Alternative: There is a significant difference of the Malunggay leaves (Moringa Oleifera) and the control in increasing the platelet count of the albino mice. D. Significance of the study: (talk on how Malunggay can increase the platelet count) E. Scope and limitation: The scope of the study is limited to the extraction of Malunggay leaves and administration of the extract in mice in different doses. The platelet is the main blood cell under investigation.

Appellate Jurisdiction in the US Court System

Appellate Jurisdiction in the US Court System The term â€Å"appellate jurisdiction† refers to the authority of a court to hear appeals to cases decided by lower courts. Courts that have such authority are called â€Å"appellate courts.† The appellate courts have the power to reverse or modify the lower court’s decision. Key Takeaways: Appellate Jurisdiction Appellate jurisdiction is the authority of a court to hear and decide appeals to decisions made by lower courts.In the United States federal court system, cases originally decided in the district courts can be appealed only to the circuit courts of appeals, while decisions of the circuit courts can be appealed only to the U.S. Supreme Court. Decisions of the Supreme Court cannot be further appealed.The right to appeal is not guaranteed by the Constitution. Instead, the appellant must â€Å"show cause† by convincing the appeals court that the trial court had failed to properly apply the laws involved or to follow proper legal procedures.The standards by which an appeals court decides the correctness of a lower court’s decision is base whether the appeal was based on a question of substantive facts of the case or on an incorrect or improper application of the legal process resulting in the denial of due process of law.   While the right to appeal is not bestowed by any law or the Constitution, it is generally considered to be embodied in general tenets of law prescribed by the English Magna Carta of 1215. Under the federal hierarchical dual court system of the United States, the circuit courts have appellate jurisdiction over cases decided by the district courts, and the U.S. Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over the decisions of the circuit courts. The Constitution gives Congress the authority to create courts under the Supreme Court and to determine the number and location of courts with appellate jurisdiction. Currently, the lower federal court system is made up of 12 geographically located regional circuit courts of appeal which have appellate jurisdiction over 94 district trial courts. The 12 appellate courts also have jurisdiction over specialized cases in involving the federal government agencies, and cases dealing with patent law. In the 12 appellate courts, appeals are heard and decided by three-judge panels. Juries are not used in the appeals courts. Typically, cases decided by the 94 district courts can be appealed to a circuit court of appeals and decisions for the circuit courts can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme Court also has â€Å"original jurisdiction† to hear certain types of cases that may be allowed to bypass the often lengthy standard appellate process. From about 25% to 33% of all appeals heard by federal appellate courts involve criminal convictions. The Right to Appeal Must be Proven Unlike other legal rights guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution, the right to appeal is not absolute. Instead, the party asking for the appeal called the â€Å"appellant,† must convince the appellate jurisdiction court that the lower court had incorrectly applied a law or failed to follow proper legal procedures during the trial. The process of proving such errors by the lower courts is called â€Å"showing cause.† The appellate jurisdiction courts will not consider an appeal unless cause has been shown. In other words, the right to appeal is not required as part of â€Å"due process of law.† While always applied in practice, the requirement to show cause in order to gain the right to appeal was confirmed by the Supreme Court in 1894. In deciding the case of McKane v. Durston, the justices wrote, â€Å"An appeal from a judgment of conviction is not a matter of absolute right, independently of constitutional or statutory provisions allowing such appeal.† The court continued, â€Å"A review by an appellate court of the final judgment in a criminal case, however, grave the offense of which the accused is convicted, was not at common law and is not now a necessary element of due process of law. It is wholly within the discretion of the state to allow or not to allow such a review.† The way in which appeals are dealt with, including determining whether or not the appellant has proven the right to appeal, can vary from state to state. Standards by Which Appeals are Judged The standards by which a court of appeals judges the validity of a lower court’s decision depends on whether the appeal was based on a question of facts presented during the trial or on an incorrect application or interpretation of a law by the lower court. In judging appeals based on facts presented at trial, the court of appeals judges must weigh the facts of the case based on their own firsthand review of the evidence and observation of witness testimony. Unless a clear error in the way the facts of the case were represented to or interpreted by the lower court can be found, the appeals court will generally deny the appeal and allow the decision of the lower court to stand. When reviewing issues of law, the court of appeals may reverse or modify the lower court’s decision if the judges find the lower court wrongly applied or misinterpreted the law or laws involved in the case. The court of appeals may also review â€Å"discretionary† decisions or rulings made by the lower court judge during the trial. For example, the appeals court might find that the trial judge improperly disallowed evidence that should have been seen by the jury or failed to grant a new trial due to circumstances that arose during the trial. Sources and Further Reference â€Å"Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure.† Legal Information Institute. Cornell Law SchoolAbout U.S. Federal Courts.† United States Courts

The Worlds 17 Smallest Countries

The World's 17 Smallest Countries The 17 smallest countries in the world each contain less than 200 square miles in area, and if you were to combine them, their total size would be just a bit larger than that of the state of Rhode Island. These independent nations range in size from 108 acres (a good sized shopping mall) to just over 191 square miles. From Vatican City to Palau, these small countries have maintained their independence and established themselves as contributors to the worlds economy, politics, and even human rights initiatives. All but one of these countries are full-fledged members of the United Nations and the one outlier is a nonmember by choice, not by inability. This list includes the worlds tiniest countries, from smallest to largest. Vatican City: 0.2 Square Mile Of these 17 smallest countries in the world, Vatican City- which in fact is the smallest country in the world- is perhaps the most influential in terms of religion: It serves as the spiritual center of the Roman Catholic church and home of the Pope. Vatican City, officially called The Holy See, is located within a walled area of the Italian capital city of Rome. Vatican City has a population of about 800 citizens, none of whom is a native permanent resident. Many more commute into the country for work. Vatican City officially came into existence in 1929 after the Lateran Treaty with Italy. Its government type is ecclesiastical and its chief of state is, actually, the Pope. Vatican City is not a member of the United Nations by its own choice. Monaco: 0.77 Square Mile Monaco, the worlds second smallest country, is located between southeastern France and the Mediterranean Sea. The country has only one official city, Monte Carlo, which is its capital and is famous as being a resort area for some of the worlds richest people. Monaco is also famous due to its location on the French Riviera, its casino (the Monte Carlo Casino), several smaller beaches, and resort communities- all squeezed into less than one square mile. Nauru: 8.5 Square Miles Nauru is a very small island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean in the region of Oceania. Nauru is the worlds smallest island country at an area of just 8.5 square miles. Naurus population is about 11,000 people. The country is known for its prosperous phosphate mining operations in the early 20th century. Nauru became independent from Australia in 1968 and was formerly known as Pleasant Island. Nauru has no official capital city. Tuvalu: 10 Square Miles Six of the nine islands or atolls comprising Tuvalu have lagoons open to the ocean, while two have significant non-beach land regions and one has no lagoons. In addition, none of the islands has any streams or rivers and because they are coral atolls, there is no drinkable ground water. Therefore, all of the water used by Tuvalus people is gathered via catchment systems and is kept in storage facilities. Tuvalu has a population of about 12,000, 96 percent of whom are Polynesian. This small countrys capital is Funafuti, which is also Tuvalus largest city. Its official languages are Tuvaluan and English. San Marino: 24 Square Miles San Marino is landlocked, completely surrounded by Italy. It is located on Mt. Titano in north-central Italy and is home to 32,000 residents. The country claims to be the oldest state in Europe, having been founded in the fourth century. San Marinos topography mainly consists of rugged mountains, and its highest elevation is Monte Titano at 2,477 feet. The lowest point in San Marino is Torrente Ausa at 180 feet. Liechtenstein: 62 Square Miles European Liechtenstein, doubly landlocked between Switzerland and Austria in the Alps, is merely 62 square miles in area. This microstate of about 36,000 is located on the Rhine River and became an independent country in 1806. The country abolished its army in 1868 and remained neutral and undamaged during World War I and World War II. Liechtenstein is a hereditary constitutional monarchy, but the prime minister runs its day-to-day affairs. Marshall Islands: 70 Square Miles The Marshall Islands, the worlds seventh smallest country, consists of 29 coral atolls and five main islands spread out over 750,000 square miles of the Pacific Ocean. The Marshall Islands are located about halfway between Hawaii and Australia. The islands are also near the equator and the International Date Line. This small country with a population 68,000 gained independence in 1986; it was formerly part of the Trust Territory of Pacific Islands, administered by the United States. Saint Kitts and Nevis: 104  Square Miles At 104 square miles (slightly smaller than the city of Fresno, California), Saint Kitts and Nevis is a Caribbean island country of 50,000 residents that gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1983. Of the two primary islands that make up Saint Kitts and Nevis, Nevis is the smaller of the two and is guaranteed the right to secede from the union. Saint Kitts and Nevis, located in the Caribbean Sea between Puerto Rico and Trinidad and Tobago, is the smallest country in the Americas based on its area and population. Seychelles: 107  Square Miles Seychelles is 107 square miles (just smaller than Yuma, Arizona). The 88,000 residents of this Indian Ocean island group have been independent of the United Kingdom since 1976. It is located northeast of Madagascar and about 932 miles east of mainland Africa. Seychelles is an archipelago with over 100 tropical islands and is the smallest country that is considered part of Africa. Seychelles capital and largest city is Victoria. Maldives: 115  Square Miles The Maldives is 115 square miles in area, slightly smaller than the city limits of Little Rock, Arkansas. However, only 200 of the 1000 Indian Ocean islands which make up this country are occupied. The Maldives is home to about 400,000 residents. The Maldives gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1965. Currently, the main concern for the islands is climate change and rising sea levels since the countrys highest point is only 7.8 feet above sea level. Malta: 122  Square Miles Malta, officially called the Republic of Malta, is an island nation located in southern Europe. Malta is one of the worlds smallest and most densely populated countries with a population of over 475,000. The archipelago making up Malta is located in the  Mediterranean Sea  about 58 miles south of the island of Sicily and 55 miles east of  Tunisia. Its capital is Valletta, and the countrys highest point is TaDmerjrek, located on the Dingli Cliffs, which tops out at just 830 feet. Grenada: 133  Square Miles The island nation of Grenada features the volcanic Mount St. Catherine. Nearby, underwater and to the north, lie the playfully named volcanoes  Kick Em Jenny and Kick Em Jack.  Grenada, whose population is about 107,000, has a capital named Saint Georges. After the overthrown and execution of Prime Minister Maurice Bishop in 1983, which led to the installation of a pro-communist government, U.S. forces invaded and captured the island. After U.S. forces withdrew in late 1983, elections were held in 1984 and Grenadas constitution was restored. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: 150  Square Miles St. Vincent is known for its pristine coastline, which provided an authentic colonial backdrop for the filming  of Pirates of the Caribbean.The country is located between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, north of Trinidad and Tobago. Most of the residents of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, whose capital is Kingstown, are Anglican, Methodist, and Roman Catholic. The countrys currency is the Eastern Caribbean dollar, which is fixed to the U.S. dollar. Barbados: 166  Square Miles Barbados is not a sleepy Carribean island. The island nations vibrant culture is expressed in its lively Bajan  festivals,  nightlife, and friendly people. Barbados is located in the easternmost section of the Caribbean islands, in the West Indies north of Venezuela. Its capital is Bridgetown, and its 286,000 residents speak English and are mainly Protestant or Roman Catholic. The countrys currency is officially the Barbadian Dollar, but the U.S. dollar widely accepted. Antigua and Barbuda: 171  Square Miles Antigua and Barbuda, a British Commonwealth, is nicknamed the Land of 365 Beaches and maintains a​  very low crime rate. The country is also located in the  Eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Its capital is St. Johns, and its nearly 101,000 residents speak English, the official language, as well as Antiguan Creole. The residents are mainly Anglican, followed by Roman Catholic and other Protestant denominations. Antigua and Barbudas currency is also the Eastern Caribbean dollar. Andorra: 180  Square Miles The independent Principality of Andorra is co-governed by the president of France and Spains Bishop of Urgel. With just over 70,000 people, this mountainous tourist destination tucked in the Pyrenees between France and Spain has been independent since 1278 but serves as a testament to multinationalism celebrated throughout the European Union. Palau: 191 Square Miles Palau is known as a mecca for divers, who say its waters are some of the planets best. This republic is made up of 340 islands, but only nine are inhabited. The country was featured a few years ago on a season of the television show Survivor. Palau has been independent since 1994 and is home to about 21,500 residents, two-thirds of whom live in and around the capital Koror. The country also offers forests, waterfalls,  and beautiful beaches.

Drug Behavior and Blood Brain Barrier Permeability Essay

Drug Behavior and Blood Brain Barrier Permeability - Essay Example Adolescent's innovation and curiosity can be transformed in dependence and addiction. Substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern leading to clinically significant impairment or distress. Several illicit substances produce dependence, defined as substance abuse that leads to loss of control, monopolization of time by substance use, and adverse medical, social, or emotional consequences that include tolerance and withdrawal (Gonzalez-Mayo, et al., 2005). There is a continued use in spite of knowing the problems that it causes. The mesolimbic dopamine system, particularly the nucleus accumbens, is a critical reinforcing site for drug addiction; this same pathway is believed to control drug craving and seeking behavior. It was recently proposed that addiction is a disease of learning and memory; classical conditioning describes learning in which a natural response is elicited by a conditioned, or learned, stimulus that previously was presented in conjunction with an unconditioned stimulus. Some evidence suggests that the mechanisms involved in the acute stimulant effects of cocaine and other illicit psychostimulants may be similar to the underlying features that explain chronic effects and addiction. The studies conducted in mice have allowed researchers to disclose important data regarding addiction pathways and neurotransmitter input. In humans, cocaine acute intoxication ca... On the other hand, ethanol intoxication causes disinhibition, emotional lability, slurred speech, ataxia, coma, and blackouts. Nicotine is one of the most addictive substances, and causes restlessness, insomnia, anxiety, and arrhythmias. Boudreau & Wolf (2005) define sensitization as "the augmentation of behavioral responses to drugs of abuse that occurs during their repeated administration and persists long after drug exposure is discontinued". The study conducted by Bainton, et al. is based on behavioral sensitization and the similarities between the addiction pathways of mammals and flies. By analyzing genetic features of Drosophila, the authors show that the behavioral defects observed in the mutant strains are not caused by accessibility changes of the administered drugs, but from alterations in the blood brain barrier, by means of changes in nervous system function. The Experimental Fly Since 1900, Drosophila flies have been used for genetic experiments. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is highly accessible to genetic analyses, and has been introduced as a novel model organism to help interpret the complex foundation of drug-induced behaviors (Heberlein, 2008). In this study, flies were maintained on special agars and mutants where screened for drug sensitivity. First, researchers evaluated several fly strains that carried a mutation named EP1529, and found an increased sensitivity to both cocaine and nicotine exposures; excision of the mutation restored drug sensitivity in these flies. Additionally, the altered gene was identified as moody, which encode for a G protein-coupled receptor. In both larvae and adult flies,

How has Google inc. maintained its long term sustainability within the Essay

How has Google inc. maintained its long term sustainability within the past five years - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that Google Inc. is a leading international technology company which provides advertising, search, operating systems, and platforms, software and hardware products. Its search engine boasts of technology leadership, making the organization to acquire dominance over similar firms in the market. Be that as it may, the company is mired in antitrust investigations in Europe and America. Observers argue that the result of such an investigation may adversely affect the firm in the near future. To ensure that it retains its status as the leading online search company, Google has employed several competitive strategies. Google provides products that enhance internet advertising. It has a variety of services and instruments for all kinds of advertisers, ranging from simple text ads, mobile display ads, to publishers. Moreover, the organization provides mobile and other similar devices. It also offers products and services in over 100 languages acros s the world. The firm has three entities under which it carries out its activities: Motorola. Google and Motorola Home. The Google part of the organization comprises of advertising and other non-advertizing investments. It mainly centers on search, operating systems, and platforms, as well as enterprise products and services. The search investment is made up of a variety of index of websites and internet contents that the organization keeps and avails via the search engine to clients connected to the internet.

Death and the Afterlife of Christianity and Buddhism Essay

Death and the Afterlife of Christianity and Buddhism - Essay Example When an individual dies, they are allowed another chance in a different life form to do well. This sequence continues from good to worse life forms. They believe that when an individual dies, they can be reincarnated in animals, spirits and even human life forms. This is totally different from Christians who believe that individuals are allowed only one chance. If they lead a righteous life they head to heaven where there is eternal happiness, if they do not, they head t hell where there is total suffering. This essay seeks to discuss the similarities and differences in the Christian and Buddhist beliefs about death and afterlife. This is on my background of Christianity as my main religion and the Buddhist influence from my grandparents. In Christianity, physical death is seen as an event which can be escaped through having life after death. The Christian traditions are set on the basis that when one leads a righteous life on Christ, they get a chance to have another life after deat h. Having a strong relationship with god is the only way out for any Christian seeking to have eternal life. In Christianity, therefore, physical death is depicted as a mere separation of one’s soul from the physical body. The christen bible stipulates that the dust returns where it came from, and the soul goes where it came from. ... They believe that one’s inequities make the relationship with God not clear hence they sufferer spiritual death. It is in line with this that Christians believe that when one becomes spiritually dead, they have no chance of entering the Kingdom of God. The sinners have no place in heaven, and when they die both physically and spiritually they do not ascend to heaven. Heaven is seen as a place where there is joy, happiness and eternal enjoyment. This is where the Christians who spent their lives in a rightful manner in earth get to enjoy the fruits of their labor. This means that, in their afterlife, only the righteous will experience joy and happiness. For those that do not lead righteous lives spiritually and physically will head to hell where there is eternal suffering. It is in this respect that Christians are in constant search for spiritual nourishment to get to heaven. They also lead their lives according to the way of God. They spent their lives righteously knowing that in the afterlife they would have eternal happiness and joy in paradise. In daily life of a Christian, it is appropriate to live rightfully and forgo the worldly pleasures (Duncan 25). The belief in the afterlife influences numerous activities that Christian engage in. the Christian traditions are dedicated to seeking high spiritual levels and beliefs in the commandments of God. Many people live their daily lives in the expectations of having a better life in the afterlife. The Christian scriptures attest that there is life after death through the story of Jesus Christ. Jesus did not only resurrect from death physically but also spiritually. Christians base their belief on this story since it is true evidence that there is life after death. The biblical texts record of joy and happiness to

The 4g Wireless Networks

The 4g Wireless Networks The current system has very limited services; 4G is going to be The Technology which is going to be highly in demand. With the developing of 4G this power can be utilized to its fullest potential for various people in different walks of life. This is will help the military services of any nation to a great extent as the video clarity and data transfer speed will help the uniformed men in the war front. Likewise for the corporate this is a boon as they can have virtual offices all over the world and monitor their business by sitting in one corner of the world. And even for the personal use it is of great help to the people as it has the better quality of service, connectivity and also helps the people in all the fields. This fourth generation helps us to gather all kinds of information which is needed without any difficulty. This 4G has lots more benefits when compared to the 3G and it also provides better service to the people in a high level. Introduction: The wireless technologies evolution has many generations such as 1G, 2G which is of wireless cellular system. The wireless systems which are currently in use provide only limited services. The users of 2G and 2.5G are asking for better quality in data, multimedia and voice similar to the quality of the wired. But the data rate required for it is very high, which is also beyond the 3G capabilities. This motivated in the research of the Fourth Generation wireless network s (4G). The 4G vision unifies many mobile and the wireless networks. Anyway, there is a basic difference to the wireless cellular and the WLANs. The wireless networks in the fourth generation will have different networks and it will overlie one with the other. The mobile station which has multiple interfaces will be fully equipped which will enhance its mobility. The 4G wireless networks will have different kinds of wireless components which will provide large number of service to the users, so that the people can communicate with the help of these networks and architecture. The 4G wireless networks are very flexible and will provide wide range of technology to the users. They will not only be able to use the internet services but also will be able to use the other services like voice and some other day-to-day applications. They not only help in improving the services but also help us to obtain wide range of information and services. Requirements: The 4G is a safe and secure platform and many services can be made use of it. It gives the complete satisfaction to the users. Low Handoff: This handoff will cause the delay in the services and it will also create loss to the communication of the data. Hence this should be managed for the better communication. Access: The access is the important thing in the 4G networks as it gives connectivity to the users and it also provides the end services. Network: The network should be of multi-service so that it will not only give the basic access but also gives a wide range of services to the people who will need voice and other services. Broadband: The 4G network integrates using the high end platform and it is also cheaper and effective to use, and it can be maintained easily. Security service: For success of 4G, the important aspect is security and to make sure that the networks are safe and protected. Models: The 4G has different range of models and it can be made use as required. Optimal networks: In this, according to the agreement the optimal network for the service is selected and the connectivity is selected based on the internet network layer. Hybrid networks: The core layers will be present and the layers will have networks of different kinds which will be presented layer below layer. Heterogeneous networks: This deals with different and all kinds of networks which has one common network. When the core layer is the same it minimizes the overheads and will also improve in the performance of the network. The fourth generation wireless network comprises 4 basic layers. They are Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN), Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN), Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), and Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN). WPAN Networks WLAN Networks WMAN Networks WWAN Networks The networks of the lower levels has high bandwidth and play a small area of networking and sometimes the networks of the lower level can play the role of the networks in the higher level. The WPAN has the shortest network connectivity. It has connection only to the personal needs like; the Bluetooth can be used with it. It covers only a relatively short distance. The WLAN also covers a short area, but more than the WPAN. It covers the local area. For e.g. the use of internet in an area. The WMAN covers more than the WLAN. It provides communication between a metropolitan area. The WWAN is the wide area but it does not have a very high bandwidth. The use of cellular, GSM can be accessed with this network. Wireless Fourth Generation Architecture: Inter Technology Hybrid Unit (HU): This hybrid unit acts as a bridge between the different layers. It combines many networks to access different technologies. The hybrid units are of different types, they are: WWAN-WMAN: This node provides a link between the WWAN and the WMAN network. For the WWAN it can act as the base station and for the WMAN it acts as a subscriber station. WMAN-WLAN: For the WLAN this unit acts as an access point, and for WMAN, it is the subscriber station. WLAN-WPAN: The networks WLAN and WPAN will be interconnected using this unit. It can operate the Bluetooth the ad-hoc networks. The main components of the cellular networks are the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), Home location Register (HLR), Serving GRPS Support Mode (SGSN). Properties of 4G: Network Architecture: It has Hybrid network architecture. Driving Architecture: It has converged data and voice over IP. Switching: It has digitalized switching with packetized voice. Radio Access: MC-CDMA, OFDMA. Database: ELHR, VLR, EIR, AuC. Data rates: It has data rates of 100Mbpsc. Roaming: It has global roaming. Compatible: It is compatible to 3G. Handsets: Numerous mode voice, data streamed video with higher data rates. Applications: Internet, MMS, Multimedia, HDTV M TV Bandwidth: It has bandwidth of 100MHz Frequency Band: It has higher frequency bands of 2-8 MHz Component Design: It has smaller antennas, software multiband and wideband radios. FEC Tech: It has concatenated coding scheme. IP: All IP (IP6.0) As the wireless communication system develops the expectations and the demand among the people keeps increasing. These wireless networks work on their capacity and limits also has some crucial period. The re-configurability can be done at any level, and it will be useful for the network provider as well as the user perspective. This provides selection between the alternate networks and is based upon all the issues. The re-configurability mechanism tells not only about the physical layer but also the stacks of the entire protocol. These 4G systems will provide many features to the users and it will provide end-to-end connectivity. The accessing, roaming and the other dynamic features are very useful and everything is obtained at a minimal cost. They can also choose between the other wireless networks if required. The following figure shows about the interoperability of the 4G layers. The 4G networks usually support the global roaming and the end-to-end services in the wireless networks, and these thing usually depend upon the Quality of Service issues (QoS). The capacity and the bandwidth for the 4G should be many times more than that of the 3G to meet the business requirements. The 4G depends not only upon the speed and version but entirely for its service and the quality. The main difference between the 4G and the previous generations is that in 4G both the voice and data can be sent, but in the other generations the voice and only a small amount of data can be sent across. The 4G can be used wireless with the Digital Subscriber line (DSL). The people throughout the world would be benefited and can use for communication, as its service and quality are very good. They can even do business from one part of the world to the other as it has good speed and is reliable. The people who have not yet used the 3G can directly hop on the 4G as it is more useful and of good speed. It will be based on the network IP technology. 4G is more useful than Wi-Fi. In Wi-Fi the distance matters and it can be accessed only in the slow path. But this 4G is faster and it can be accessed from any place and it is also cost-effective. Quality of Service: The quality of service plays a very challenging role in the 4G networks. It provide a wide range of service and a better quality to the users. There are 4 types of quality of service, they are: 1. Packet- level Quality of service: This QoS refers to the packet level service which also takes care of the error rate, and the space occupied by the buffer. It has a good packet quality which is very helpful to the users. 2. Transaction level Quality of Service: This transaction level depends on the transaction time it takes to complete a service and also about the packet loss. Some of networks can accept the packet loss but the others cannot. 3. Circuit level Quality of Service: The circuit level service is about the calls which have been connected and also about the circuit level transfer and other transactions. It provides a good quality of service for the calls and services. 4. User-level Quality of Service: The user level quality depends upon the application and the other services. It also depends upon the mobility of the users which may support the quality of the network. Conclusion: 4 G is developed with the following aspects and advantages: Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s speed would be 50 times high than 3G. The expected bandwidth of 4G is about 10Mbps. It has options of three-dimensional virtual reality, video and the ability to feel at the event even if you are not present physically there. We get to interact with people, products and know about the places when the cyber and real world merge. The smart card in your mobile would advice you to do what next as it will be monitoring your movements. Last but not the least 4G will provide access and support for authentication, paying off bills, security and also supports whichever has mobile specific services.